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Chronology 1500 BC (Pre-talaiotic) — 600 BC (Talaiotic III) The village is very little explored, despite the fact it might be one of the largest prehistoric settlements on the island. It includes two talaiots, two possible taula sanctuaries, several ruins of houses of which some pillars still remain, and a rain water collection system composed of small reservoirs located at the base of the talaiot. Near the village there are several hypogaea and caves, mostly natural, such as the "Cova des Coloms" of a remarkable height, about 20-25 m tall. The southern talaiot (Ses Bigues de Mata) Chronology Talaiotic Ia (1400-1150 BC) Radiocarbon dating of a lentisk beam: 870 BC Dimensions Structure: 12.8 m (diameter) × 6 m (height) Chamber: 6.8-7.3 m (diameter) × 4.2 m (height) Corridor: 3.5 m (length) × 2.3 m (height) The southern talaiot, also known as Ses Bigues de Mata, is the largest of the village and it is considered to be the largest hollow talaiot of the Balearic Islands. It has a circular plan and a shape of a truncated cone, and it was built with stones of various sizes. A gate points southwest and is composed of polylithic pillars and a monolithic lintel, which through a short corridor leads to the interior. It has a large circular chamber with a high ceiling, supported by Mediterranean type (wider at the top) polylithic pillars, originally aided by several lentisk beams of which only one remains. There might have been an upper chamber, however the access to it from the lower chamber has been blocked by a collapse. Another access has been discovered to the supposed upper chamber, to the southeast, likewise blocked. Several houses and a unknown building are attached radially to the talaiot.

The settlement is one of the largest of modern-day Maó. Sadly its extent is hard to appreciate due to farming and construction works on the northern part of an airport. The remains include two talaiots, talaiotic houses, a water collection system, and several hypogaea. The water collection system was carved into the rock next to the talaiot's wall. It has two cisterns, one of which has two small cavities for decantation, and contained cremics of Iberian and Punic times. During the excavations in front of the talaiot, several houses were uncovered and evidence has been found that there used to be a bronze foundry. A 19 cm-tall figurine of a warrior bearing a Corinthian helmet was discovered near the base of the talaiot, now part of the Pons i Soler collection. An obsidian fragment was also found, which could have only originated in islands of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. In the same area, there is a much smaller and poorly preserved hollow talaiot with a linteled gate of polylithic pillars. In 1971, quite by chance, an anthropomorphic tomb was found in the fields of Torellonet Nou, known as “es Pasatge”. It had a slab on top which conserved the remains of a human skeleton. Near this find there is a sandstone quarry where the remains of 9 or 10 more tombs can be seen. Torelló d'en Sintes Torelló d'en Sintes is a talaiotic house was found on the adjoining field of the talaiot Torelló 1. It has an apsidal floor plan, a flat façade and a double-faced wall. The best preserved part of the house is a courtyard and several rooms around it. In this house, a Roman treasure trove of over 300 bronze and silver coins of the Republican era was discovered. The talaiot (Torelló 1) Chronology Talaiotic Ib (1150-1000 BC) — 700 BC (Talaiotic III) Dimensions Structure: 22-24.6 m (diameter) × 10 m (height) Upper chamber: 6.4-7.2 m (diameter) Gate: 0.9 m (width) The most prominent structure of this settlement is a massive and spectacular solid talaiot, the largest and most well-preserved of the Balearic Islands. It is shaped like a truncated cone, more or less of a circular plan. It seems to have a stair against its outer walls that leads to the top. One special feature is that it still possesses a beautiful linteled gate in its summit, oriented towards the south. This gate used to give access to a corridor connected with a central circular chamber that had radial dividing walls and was covered with large slabs. Today, it is almost completely disappeared, since it was destroyed to install a a geodesic point in the 1950s. Findings in the circular chamber suggest the talaiot had become a sanctuary during the Roman Imperial era, the excavations recovered oil lamps and fine walled pottery.

Chronology Talaiotic Ia (1400-1150 BC) — Middle Ages Dimensions Area: 37.500 m² The village is the most important of Menorca's western section. It possesses many buildings in its interior and exterior, and it integrally preserves its wall. The remains of at least four talaiots have been found included in the wall, as well as a possible navetiform, numerous houses and two Pre-talaiotic hypogaea outside the city walls. These artificial caves are usually for funerary purposes. The taula The sanctuary is located at the center of the settlement, and has a façade of two entrances instead of one. It encloses a taula of a great size, but sadly the taula was deliberately destroyed, as attested by the groove across the pillar that was used to cut it in half. A stone inside the precinct has been found with the inscription "LACESE", which endorses a possible endurance of the village during the Roman era. The walls Chronology 10th century BC (Talaiotic II) The most striking feature of this settlement is its well-preserved impressive walls. Towers, bastions, gates and casemates are easily seen in the wall. Several building techniques can be distinguished, belonging to different eras and later alterations. The oldest segments of the wall are built with orthostats, i.e. vertical irregular-shaped stones. The towers seem to have a slight Hellenistic or perhaps Roman influence, as their building techniques consisted of horizontal ashlars.

Chronology Talaiots: 1400-1200 BC (Talaiotic I) Houses and walls: 10th century BC (Talaiotic II) — 13th century AD (conquest by Alfonso III of Aragon) Dimensions Area: 66.240 m² Torre d'en Galmés was by far the largest village of the Balearic Islands, measuring over 6.6 hectares, whereas the largest village in Majorca is only 1.7 hectares. It is situated on a hilltop that dominates most of the southern part of the island Menorca, built around three talaiots. In prehistoric times it would have been possible to observe a large number of villages from this position which leads to think that Torre d'en Galmés exercised a position of authority. On clear days, even the mountains of neighbouring Majorca can be seen. Most of the structures seem to be located south, on the lower part of the hill. The most notable ruins are hypostyles, circular houses, and a complex Proto-talaiotic hypogaeum that was reused as a rain water collection system. However, the northern part also possesses several structures, such as city gates and wall fragments, hypogaea and some houses. The taula Chronology Talaiotic III (800-450 BC) — 3rd century BC (Talaiotic IV) Dimensions Pillar: 2 m (current height) × 1.5-1.6 m (width) × 0.4 m (thickness) Capital: 2.3-2.5 m (length) × 1.2-1.3 m (width) × 0.7 m (thickness) The taula's sanctuary is pointing south and located at the foot of the third and largest talaiot of the village. The precinct is quite well preserved, although the eastern wall has collapsed to some degree. Sadly, the taula's pillar is broken since ancient times, and cannot be restored as the upper half is missing. The capital on the other hand was reused in Roman times as a sarcophagus, hence the fact that the capital's groove, in which the pillar was fixed, is deeper than normal. As usual, the sanctuary that encloses the taula is hoof-shaped and with a concave façade. Three descending steps lead to the gate, composed by two monoliths that used to support a lintel, which has gone missing during the past century. In the 1980s, an Egyptian bronze figurine of Imhotep, dated at the 7th century BC, was found in the sanctuary, with the inscription "I am Imhotep the god of medicine". Imhotep was a chancellor to the pharaoh Djoser, probable architect of the step pyramid, and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis, who was posteriorly deified and glorified. This endorses the theory the precincts were indeed sanctuaries. House 1 This circle has a special peculiarity, it has been built up against the slope of the hill, incorporating a modified natural cave, in order to shorten the length of the outer wall. By including the cave into the house, the area is considerably larger than in most houses. The Cartailhac circle (House 4) Dimensions Structure: 15.8 m (diameter) The most outstandingly monumental circle is without a doubt the Cartailhac circle. It was very likely to have belonged to a family of a high status. It is compartmented by radial walls that converge in a central patio with a cistern. To both sides of the entrance of the house there is a small covered space, with the ceiling below the upper level of the stones of the outer wall, which seems to mean that, at least above those spaces, there was another floor. It possesses a hypostyle, a construction with a limestone slab roof held up on polylithic pillars. The megaliths are perfectly balanced on the capital stone of the column, in a way that if one were to be removed, the structure would collapse. #megalithic #megalítico #ruins #ruinas #talayotic #talayótico #talaiotic #talaiótico #talayot #talaiot #taula #naveta #navetadestudons #BalearicIslands #IslasBaleares #Balearic #Baleares #Minorca #Menorca #Majorca #Mallorca #archaeology #archeology #arqueología #history #historia #prehistory #prehistoria #protohistory #protohistoria

Amidst the waters of the western Mediterranean Sea lies a small, remote island that is an entire world of its own – full of wildlife, history, legends, mysteries and conflicts: Menorca. It is one of the four Balearic Islands, the others being Majorca, Ibiza and Formentera, along with many minor islands and islets close to the biggest islands, such as Cabrera, Dragonera and S’Espalmador. Prehistory reaches back more than 4 millennia into the past, from megalithic tombs to the Pretalaiotic and Talaiotic cultures – times of which barely no written sources exist, and ruins are virtually the only testimony. During the Archaic Period, the Phoenicians that sailed near Menorca to reach their colonies could see bonfires shining from the top of the defensive towers, called talaiots, that littered the Menorcan landscape. Menorca is unique in its primeval quality, due to the tremendous amount of magnificent megalithic and cyclopean ruins, like navetas, taulas and talaiots, which always seem to blend in so harmoniously with its surroundings. Menorca’s prehistory and protohistory developed uniformly with Majorca’s during the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) and the Early Bronze Age. During the end of the Middle Bronze Age, the two islands entered the Talaiotic Culture and, despite the many similarities, started diverging. Menorca has many monuments exclusive to the island, like the navetas, elliptic talaiots, circles (houses) and, of course, the enigmatic taulas; whereas Majorca has square talaiots. It is estimated that the natives arrived sometime in the 3rd millennium BC. These were people whose culture was developing during the transition from the Neolithic and the Copper Age and worked the ground. With their arrival, they introduced livestock like sheep, goats, cows and pigs. Initially they lived alongside of the endemic Balearic cave goat, Myotragus balearicus, which was driven to extinction soon after. In fact, it was more closely related to sheep than to goats, and one of its most remarkable traits is that the eyes were not directed towards the sides, as are those of nearly all herbivorous mammals, but towards the front like nearly all primates and carnivorans, granting them stereoscopic vision. Up until the 20th century, it was thought that the Talaiotic Culture rised from the interaction with peoples from the Eastern Mediterranean such as the Sea Peoples or the Nuragic Civilization from Sardinia, who built defensive towers that are very similar in appearance to talaiots. It was believed this process either occurred in the form of an invasion or as a peaceful assimilation. However, archaeological evidence indicates that the Sardinian nuraghes were built around 3900 years ago, much earlier than talaiots that first appeared 3400 years ago, and were instead contemporary with Menorcan navetas, that were already being used 4000 years ago. Likewise, the crisis of the 13th century BC caused in the western Mediterranean by the Sea Peoples also predates the constructions of talaiots. In fact, the evolution from the Pre-Talaiotic Culture to the Talaiotic Culture during the Bronze Age seems to have been a very gradual transition that lasted several centuries, caused by a local crisis on the archipelago. The name for the Balearic Islands was originally meant to designate Majorca and Menorca, and was given by the Carthaginians and later used by the Romans. It derives from the Punic ba' lé yaroh. The noun ba' lé means "those who are of the profession of", whereas the verb yaroh means "to throw stones". Therefore, the translation for Balearics would be "the masters of throwing", refering to its celebrated slingers. The Balearic slingers were highly regarded by Carthaginians and Romans and were heavily recruited in both their armies. The Greeks on the other hand used the term Gymnesians for Majorca and Menorca. Lycophron claimed the islands were called Γυμνησίαι (Gymnesiai), from the Greek γυμνός (gymnos, “naked”) because of the lightly armoured soldiers of the islands in classical antiquity. Ibiza and Formentera were called the Pityuses by Greeks and Phoenicians (and later Carthaginians), and derives from the Greek term πιτύα (pitya, “pine tree”), as the islands are indeed covered in pine trees. Lycophron explained Menorca and Majorca were called Γυμνησίαι (Gymnesiai), from the Greek γυμνός (gymnos, “naked”) because of the lightly armoured soldiers of the islands in classical antiquity. According to Lycophron's Alexandra verses and Silius Italicus, the natives of the islands are descendants of the slingers from Rhodes that fled after the Trojan war. [633] "And others shall sail to the sea-washed Gymnesian rocks – crab-like, clad in skins – where cloakless and unshod they shall drag out their lives, armed with three two-membered slings. Their mothers shall teach the far-shooting art to their young offspring by supperless discipline. For none of them shall chew bread with his jaws, until with well-aimed stone he shall have won the cake set as a mark above the board." Lycophron of Chalcis, 270 – 260 BC, Alexandria Dolmen Culture (2500-2000 BC) During the 3rd millennium BC, the first megalithic dolmens appeared. These funerary monuments were very similar to those of southern France and northeastern Spain. It is not known whether these structures were built by newly arrived peoples. Due to the scarcity of copper deposits on the islands for the metal’s extraction, contact with the exterior was necessary, so ties with the continent were apparently never severed. Notable structures The oldest structures of Menorca are dolmens. These are single-chamber tombs, consisting of two ore more orthostats supporting a horizontal capstone. They have corridors that lead to a perforated slab at the entrance. They were originally covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus, but this covering is almost always weathered away, leaving only the stone skeleton of the burial mount. A great example is Ses Roques Llises. Sites: Ses Roques Llises Pre-Talaiotic Culture (2000—1400 BC) Eventually, the Bronze Age arrived during the early 2nd millennium BC, and again this indicates contact with the continent, since tin needed to be added to copper in order to create bronze, and tin does not exist on the islands. Around this time, the building techniques had become more elaborate, and the first navetiform structures started to appear. Burials were made in reformed dolmens, in natural caves, or in newly excavated caves in the rock. Some of these caves were remarkably complex, not even the caves of the Talaiotic period would achieve this level of perfection. Notable structures Hypogaea (singular hypogaeum), from Greek ὑπό (hypó, "under") and γαῖα (gaîa, "earth"), are artificial caves which served as underground tombs during the early Bronze Age. Most of them have been plundered since antiquity, and reused during the Talaiotic period as a water reservoir. They can be rounded, elongated, or possess additional lateral cavities, antechambers, stairs, etc. During the late Bronze Age, the natives of the Balearic Islands developed navetiforms, called like that due to the similarities they present to navetas. Navetiforms are apsidal in shape, roughly resembling an elongated horseshoe, and usually have a wooden ceiling reinforced with mortar, supported by several polylithic pillars. Although in two cases in Menorca, these structures are topped with stones instead, like the surprisingly complete Sa Cova des Moro. Excavations have revealed that they had fireplaces, and evidence has been found that some of these structures might have even had a second floor. Navetas are exclusive to Menorca, and are the most famous ancient buildings of the island. They're cyclopean chamber tombs that appeared in the early and middle Bronze Age. Navetas evolved from elaborate dolmens, but lost many typical traits that characterize their ancestral design. The oval structure of dolmens was adopted in the design of early navetas, like those at Biniac-L'Argentina, and posteriorly it was transformed into a an elongated apsidal plan in late navetas, acquiring a shape that resembles the hull of a ship, like those at Rafal Rubí. No early navetas are well enough preserved to assess whether they had a second floor, but they probably didn't, as opposed to late navetas, that in turn did have an upper and a lower chamber. Pre-Talaiotic navetas still have a clear link to dolmens: a perforated slab at the entrance. This rectangular hole allowed to enter the structure. The borders of the hole have a distinguishable recess which was used to accomodate a closing stone. The perforated slab likely symbolized the entrance to the world of the dead, and only very few were allowed in. Sites: Biniac-L'Argentina Rafal Rubí Son Mercer de Baix Talaiotic Culture (1400—123 BC) The Talaiotic Culture occupies the period that stretches from the building of the first talaiots up to the arrival of history, when the Roman Republic conquered the Balearic Islands. The Talaiotic Culture is considered to belong to protohistory, not prehistory, due to the fact that despite no writing had developed, written references about it have been found in classical cultures. If it weren't for the lack of writing, the Talaiotic Culture of Menorca could be considered a civilization, possessing numerous and large buildings with social, defensive and religious purposes, all of them built with a larger monumentality than those of Majorca. The Talaiotic Period can be further subdivided into the following periods: Proto-Talaiotic Period (1400—1000 BC): Many features of the subsequent Talaiotic Culture began to appear. The population clustered into towns. The navetiforms were dismantled to use the building materials in newer buildings, like dwellings. Talaiotic Ia (1400—1150 BC): Navetas, first talaiots Talaiotic Ib (1150—1000 BC): Walls Talaiotic Period (1000—450 BC): The Talaiotic Culture reaches its zenith during the 1st half of the 1st millenium BC, but falls in a crisis during the middle 1st millennium BC. Talaiotic II (1000—800 BC): Large talaiots and walls Talaiotic III (800—450 BC): Hypostyles, circles and taulas Post-Talaiotic Period (450—123 BC): The wars that erupted between Rome and Carthage forcibly dragged the Balearic Islands into the Post-Talaiotic Period. Talaiotic IV: Carthaginian influence and Roman conquest Proto-Talaiotic & Talaiotic Periods (1400-450 BC) In the end of the 2nd millennium, during the Proto-talaiotic period, a crisis hits the entire society, possibly due to the impoverishment of the soils, cultivated by burning the wooded areas without the necessary knowledge on how to regenerate them, such as plowing. This led to the expansion of farming. The society gradually evolved from independent families to one with hierarchies, where clan chiefs order the construction of monuments that required a great effort on behalf of the community, such as step towers. This would eventually give rise to the Talaiotic Culture, when the first differences appeared between Menorca and Majorca. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the Talaiotic Culture flourished and reached its zenith. The step towers that had appeared earlier gave way to a humongous amount of talaiots, more than 500 of them distributed on Menorca and Majorca. Over time, the newer settlements began to take advantage of strategic places to take dominion over a territory, and often, these talaiots were built on borders between villages. Evidently, some of these settlements ended up protected by walls that incorporated talaiots as defensive towers. The walls were built with very large and heavy rocks, without the use of any mortar (cyclopean masonry). The funerary traditions were very varied. In Menorca, extensive necropoleis were built in natural caves or excavated in the walls of ravines, like Cala Morell. The Pityuses (Ibiza and Formentera) had remained uninhabited until this point. But at the beginning of the Iron Age, in the 8th century BC, these islands were settled by a thalassocratic nation: Phoenicia. These seafarers spread across the Mediterranean Sea between 1500 and 300 BC to colonize or trade with distant regions, like the mining city Tarsis, of the kingdom of Tartessos in southern Iberia. The Phoenicians called Menorca "Nura", that derives from nur, meaning "fire". Because when their ships sailed near the island, they could see bonfires shine from the top of the talaiots. The Greek term for Menorca would be Μηλουσσα (Mēloussa), derived from μῆλον (mêlon, "livestock"), the island's first wealth. In 654 BC, the Phoenicians founded the city of Ibiza, becoming the center of the western Mediterranean trade due to its privileged strategic position. The golden age of the Talaiotic Period came to an end with another crisis around the middle 1st millennium BC, during the transition from the Talaiotic Culture to the Post-talaiotic Culture. It is possible that during this obscure period, the enigmatic taulas appeared, built in the previously existing Talaiotic sanctuaries. Around 600-500 BC, most talaiots had fallen into disuse and vast areas of villages were burnt and abandoned. Notable structures Talaiots are undoubtedly one of the most emblematic monuments of the Balearic Islands, so much so that they gave name to the Talaiotic Culture. Additionally, more than 500 talaiots cover the landscape of Menorca and Majorca. Menorcan talaiots are usually more monumental than Majorcan ones, perhaps indicating a better organized society. Talaiots were circular on both islands, or elliptic on Menorca and square in Majorca. Moreover, Majorcan talaiots always have an internal chamber, as opposed to Menorcan talaiots, which can be both hollow, like Ses Bigues de Mata, or completely solid, such as Torelló 1. The appearance of late navetas predates the Talaiotic Period, but were still used well into this period. The best example is the perfectly preserved Naveta des Tudons. This Talaiotic naveta is clearly distinguishable from Pre-Talaiotic navetas: it was built with dry ashlar masonry, using finely dressed rectangular stones, and the entrance, composed by two monolithic pillars supporting a lintel, has lost the perforated slab. Menorca has yet another type of exclusive structures, called taulas. Their purpose and moment of appearence is unknown, however an Egyptian bronze figurine of Imhotep, frequently associated to curative practices, has been found near the taula of Torre d'en Galmés. Taulas are found inside a precinct that is horseshoe-shaped and is also found in Majorca, called sanctuary. The sanctuary has an enclosing wall, called apse, of cyclopean masonry, with one or two entrances in the concave façade. The entrance consists of a slab on the ground called threshold, monolithic lateral pillars, and a lintel. 11 columns are located at the perifery, radiating around the taula, one of which is wider, called taula-like column, and a 12th exempt column located at the left side of the taula (if one faces the entrance). The taula stands in the middle of the sanctuary, and is composed of the pillar and the capital, and can reach heights of 5 m. The base of the taula is aligned with much lower stones called flanks. Taula sanctuaries had 2 ritual fireplaces, one in front of the taula, and a second one at the left corner of the sanctuary, against the apse. Some are of the opinion that the precinct that encloses the taula was covered by a ceiling, and that the taula itself was a pillar to support it. However, most authors now believe that the sanctuary was not covered, and others claim it was only partially covered. The taula and its sanctuary has long been seen as an astronomical observatory, that was used to create a callendar and predict the arrival of seasons. However, the natives didn't practice agriculture, only farming, and calendaries aren't essential, and therefore the astronomical theory isn't fundamented. On the other side, taulas are mostly found pointing towards the sea. In any case, whatever the taula might symbolize, it has two companions: the exempt column to its left, and the taula-like column to its right. Taulas have been found in most Menorcan villages, but the taula and sanctuary of Torralba d'en Salord are exceptionally well preserved. Sites: Es Tudons Torralba d'en Salord Cornia Nou Sant Agustí Vell Torellonet Vell Son Catlar Talatí de Dalt Trepucó Post-Talaiotic Period & Carthaginian Influence (450—123 BC) "Μηλουσσα, νησος κατα Ἰβηρας." Translation: "Meloussa (Menorca), the island in front of the Iberians." Hecataeus of Miletus, 500 BC With these words prehistory in the Balearic Islands came to an end, and history would properly begin. The houses, called “circles”, achieve great perfection. They are usually built around a central patio, with many large monoliths in its interior, and are often chained together with other houses. Mercenary forces were enlisted in Carthage in order to replenish the armies, an extraordinary technique that Carthage had employed since the 6th century BC, and since the beginning of the reign of King Hanno the Navigator in 480 BC, Carthage regularly began employing Iberian infantry and Balearic slingers to support Carthaginian spearmen. During the Second Punic War, Ibiza supplied the Carthaginian general Magon, brother to Hannibal Barca, before he set course towards Menorca in 205 BC to take refuge, founding, according to tradition, the city of Mahón. Slingers were enlisted until the destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146 BC. Notable structures Circles are also exclusive to Menorca. They are in fact Talaiotic dwellings that have a circular plan. The outer walls are made by horizontal stones that form the foundation, and vertical, mostly rectangular stones on top. The first entrance leads to an interior patio that has a fireplace. Surrounding the patio, there are rooms, hypostyles (storage facilities), a water reservoir, and a dumpsite. Circles achieve great perfection during the Post-talaiotic Period, for example at the village of Torre d'en Galmés. Sites: Torre d'en Galmés Roman Era (123 BC—468 AD) After the Punic Wars, Rome attempted to conquer Majorca in several occasions, but failed, until Quintus Caecilius Metellus was elected to the consulship in 123 BC, serving alongside Titus Quinctus Flaminius. During his consulship, he was awarded the command of the campaign against the pirates of the Balearic Islands. Majorca has two excellent harbors, which were used as a base by pirates from southern Gaul and Sardinia, who escaped the Roman campaigns in Transalpine Gaul in 126 BC and Sardinia in 125 and fled to the Balearics, the last place for them to hide in the western Mediterranean. By 121 BC he had defeated the pirates and conquered Majorca and Menorca, that were called the Balearics, for which he gained his cognomen Balearicus and the honours of a Triumph. The territory was extremely valuable economically, so much so that in the aftermath of the victory, Balearicus established 3.000 ‘Romans’ on the islands in two settlements on Majorca, Palmaria (Palma), and Pollentia (Alcúdia). The two settlements attest to the importance of the islands being firmly under Roman control. There is some debate as to where these settlers came from, as it is unlikely there were this many Roman civilians available and willing to colonize Majorca from the mainland at this date. The most likely explanation is that they were veterans from the wars in Hispania and Roman-Spanish hybridae.Almost 12 years after the conquest, the Balearic slingers were already integrated int the African campaign of the Roman armies. The Greek historian and geographer Strabo gave us an insight of what the Balearic Islands looked like several decades after the Roman conquest. "Των δε προκειμενων νησων της Ἰβηριας τας μεν Πιτυουσσας δυο καιτας Γυμνησιας δυο (καλουσι και Βαλιαριδας) προκεισθαι συμβαινει της μεταξυ Ταρρακωνος και Σουκρωνος παραλιας, ἐφ΄ ης ἱδρυται το Σαγουντον." Translation: "Of the islands that lie in front of Iberia, the two Pityuses and the two Gymnesians (also called Balearides) are located in front of the coast between Tarraco and Sucro, where Sagunto lies." Strabo, 65 BC – 20 AD, Geographica In the 4th century AD, the emperor Theodosius merged the Pityuses with the Balearics, creating the Roman province of Hispania Balearica. Sites: Sanisera Byzantine Era (533—707 AD) The Vandals under Genseric conquered the Islands sometime between 461 and 468 during their war on the Roman Empire. However, in late 533 or early 534, following the Battle of Ad Decimum, Justinian I gave Belisarius the command of gaining control of the islands for the Byzantine Empire. One year later, Belisarius entrusted the conquest of the Balearic Islands to his lieutenant Apollinaris, where he became governor. Sites: Basílica de Son Bou Basílica des Cap des Port Basílica des Fornàs de Torelló Basílica de la Isla del Rey Muslim Era (707—1232 AD) Byzantine Imperial power receded precipitously in the western Mediterranean after the fall of Carthage and the Exarchate of Africa to the Umayyad Caliphate in 698, and in 707 the islands submitted to the terms of an Umayyad fleet, which allowed the residents to maintain their traditions and religion as well as a high degree of autonomy. Now nominally both Byzantine and Umayyad, the de facto independent islands occupied a strategic and profitable grey area between the competing religions and kingdoms of the western Mediterranean. The prosperous islands were thoroughly sacked by the Swedish Viking King Björn Ironside and his brother Hastein during their Mediterranean raid of 859–862. In 902, the heavy use of the islands as a pirate base provoked the Emirate of Córdoba, nominally the island's overlords, to invade and incorporate the islands into their state. However, the Cordoban Caliphate that succeeded the Emirate disintegrated in civil war in the early 11th century, breaking into smaller states called taifa. Mujahid al-Siqlabi, the ruler of the Taifa of Dénia, sent a fleet and seized control of the islands in 1015, using it as the base for subsequent expeditions to Sardinia and Pisa. In 1050, the island's governor Abd Allah ibn Aglab rebelled and established the independent Taifa of Mallorca. Sites: Castle of Santa Àgueda Aragonese Conquest & Catalan Colonization (1232 AD) On the last day of 1229, King James I of Aragon captured Palma after a three-month siege. The rest of Mallorca quickly followed. Menorca fell in 1232 and Ibiza in 1235. James died in 1276, having partitioned his domains between his sons James and Peter in his will. The will created a new Kingdom of Mallorca from the Balearic islands and the mainland counties of Roussillon and Montpellier, which was left to his son James II of Majorca. However, the terms of the will specified that the new kingdom be a vassal state to the Kingdom of Aragon, which was left to his older brother Peter III. Because the recent conquest of Sicily by Peter III the Great, Pope Martin IV declared the Aragonese Crusade against Peter and officially deposed him as king. Martin bestowed Aragon on Charles, Count of Valois, son of the French king, Philip III, and nephew of Peter III. James II joined forces with the Pope Martin IV and Philip III of France against his brother Peter III in the Aragonese Crusade, leading to a 10-year Aragonese occupation. Majorca was devastated as an independent polity. However, the crusade resulted in an Aragonese victory, and Peter's successor Alfonso III annexed Majorca, Ibiza, and Menorca in the following years. However, the Treaty of Tarascon of 1291, that intended to end the Aragonese Crusade, officially restored Aragon to Alfonso III and lifted the ban of the church. Alfonso was obligated to pay a tribute to the church, and carry out a crusade to the Holy Land. In 1295, the Treaty of Anagni confirmed the Treaty of Tarascon and returned the islands to James II. The tension between the kingdoms continued through the generations until James' grandson James III was killed by the invading army of Peter's grandson Peter IV at the 1349 Battle of Llucmajor. The Balearic Islands were then incorporated directly into the kingdom of Aragon. #megalithic #megalítico #ruins #ruinas #talayotic #talayótico #talaiotic #talaiótico #talayot #talaiot #taula #naveta #navetadestudons #BalearicIslands #IslasBaleares #Balearic #Baleares #Minorca #Menorca #Majorca #Mallorca #archaeology #archeology #arqueología #history #historia #prehistory #prehistoria #protohistory #protohistoria

Pre-Columbian Ecuador included numerous indigenous cultures, who thrived for thousands of years before the ascent of the Incan Empire. Las Vegas culture of coastal Ecuador is one of the oldest cultures in the Americas. The Valdivia culture in the Pacific coast region is a well-known early Ecuadorian culture. Ancient Valdivian artifacts from as early as 3500 BC have been found along the coast north of the Guayas Province in the modern city of Santa Elena. Several other cultures, including the Quitus, Caras and Cañaris, emerged in other parts of Ecuador. There are other major archaeological sites in the coastal provinces of Manabí and Esmeraldas and in the middle Andean highland provinces of Tungurahua and Chimborazo. The archaeological evidence has established that Ecuador was inhabited for at least 4,500 years before the rise of the Inca. Great tracts of Ecuador, including almost all of the Oriente (Amazon rainforest), remain unknown to archaeologists, a fact that adds credence to the possibility of early human habitation. Scholars have studied the Amazon region recently but the forest is so remote and dense that it takes years for research teams to survey even a small area. Their belief that the river basin had complex cultures is confirmed by the recent discovery of the Mayo-Chinchipe Cultural Complex in the Zamora-Chinchipe Province. The present Republic of Ecuador is at the heart of the region where a variety of civilizations developed for millennia. During the pre-Inca period people lived in clans, which formed great tribes, and some allied with each other to form powerful confederations, as the Confederation of Quito. But none of these confederations could resist the formidable momentum of the Tawantinsuyu. The invasion of the Inca in the 15th century was very painful and bloody. However, once occupied by the Quito hosts of Huayna Capac, the Incas developed an extensive administration and began the colonization of the region. The pre-Columbian era can be divided up into four eras: 1. Preceramic Period (end of the last glacial—4500 BC) Las Vegas Culture (9000—4600 BC) El Inga (9000—8000 BC) 2. Formative Period (4500—600 BC) Valdivia Culture (3500—1500 BC) Machalilla Culture (1500—1100 BC) Chorrera Culture (900—300 BC) 3. Period of Regional Development (600 BC—400 AD) La Bahía (300 BC—500 AD) La Tolita Culture (600 BC—200 AD) Guangala (100—800 AD) 4. Period of Integration and arrival of the Inca (400 AD—1532 AD) Los Manteños (600—1534 AD) Los Huancavilcas (600—1530 AD) Quitu-Cara Culture and the Kingdom of Quito (400—1532 AD) The Inca (1463—1532 AD) La Tolita Culture (600 BC—200 AD) The culture of La Tolita developed in the coastal region of Southern Colombia and Northern Ecuador between 600 BC and 400 AD. A number of archaeological sites have been discovered and show the highly artistic nature of this culture. Already extinct by the time of the Spaniards arrival, they left a huge collection of pottery artifacts depicting everyday life. Artefacts are characterized by gold jewellery, beautiful anthropomorphous masks and figurines that reflect a hierarchical society with complex ceremonies. Anthropomorphic golden funerary mask with platinum eyes. Anthropomorphic golden ornament. Golden and platinum ornament of a monkey head. Golden ornament with platinum and turquoise eyes. The Sol de Oro is the most prominent artifact from the La Tolita Culture. It is a sun-shaped mask dated between 600 BC and 400 AD. It was probably worn by a Shaman who knew the agricultural cycles, and used it for sowing and harvesting rituals. It has an anthropomorphic face with a jaguar mouth. The wavy rays bursting from the head are grouped into three bundles and are formed by slithering snakes tipped with human faces. At the base of the upper bundle of rays, there are two mythical crested animals that resemble dragons, which are common in the pre-Columbian art of the western South American coast, from Peru to Panama. The Sol de Oro is a piece of 21 karats and 284.4 g in weight, and its size is 64 by 40 cm. It is an embossed sheet fashioned from a natural alloy of gold and platinum. The provenance of the mask was until recently uncertain and was one of the most controversial among ancient Ecuadorian metallurgy. For years it was debated whether its origin lies in the Sig-Sig and Chordeleg area in the province of Azuay, or the area of La Tolita in the province of Esmeraldas. Finally, the results of neutron activation analysis have revealed the raw material has a coastal origin. Mythical four-eyed caiman statuette. Jaguar censer. Jaguar vase ornament. Head of a mythical creature. Statue of a priestess. La Bahía Culture (500 BC—650 AD) The Bahía culture inhabited modern Ecuador between 500 BC and 650 AD, in the area that stretched from the foothills of the Andes Mountains to the Pacific Ocean; and from Bahía de Caráquez to the south of Manabí. Jama-Coaque Culture (355 BC—1532 AD) The Jama-Coaque culture was settled in the North of modern-day Province of Manabí of Ecuador, mainly in the area between the Coaque and Jama rivers, from which it takes its name. It existed for approximately 2000 years, spanning from 355 BC to 1532 AD, with a possible subsequent permanence during the early colonial period of the country. The material culture of the Jama Coaque includes animal and human representations in stone and metal, but the best-known aspects of the Jama Coaque culture are its ceramic vessels and figurines probably made for ritual purposes. Depicting warriors, musicians, hunters, and dancers, the figures were mold-made and have appliqué decorations that were made in smaller molds. Some figures are attached to vessels, but most are freestanding. Jama Coaque figures share similarities with other coastal sites of the period, but are often more richly clothed and elaborately adorned. A vessel attached to a figure of a warrior wielding an atlatl (an Aztec loanword for "spear-thrower") and shield, pertaining to the Jama-Coaque culture, centred in northern modern-day Ecuador and dated between 355 BC and 1532 AD. A statuette of a step-pyramidal temple of the Jama-Coaque culture, centred in northern modern-day Ecuador and dated between 355 BC and 1532 AD. Manteño Culture (500—1532 AD) Silver mask with copper crown and crest, and golden nose ring with a quartz bead. Manteño culture, dated between 500 and 1532 AD. Small silver head with golden nose ring, belonging to the Manteño culture, centred in modern-day Ecuador and dated between 500 and 1532 AD. Embossed silver plaque depicting two beetles, of the Manteño culture, centred in modern-day Ecuador and dated between 500 and 1532 AD. Embossed silver pectoral of the Manteño culture, centred in modern-day Ecuador and dated between 500 and 1532 AD. The Manteño civilization was one of the last pre-Hispanic civilizations in modern-day Ecuador. The civilization mainly grew fruits and vegetables, such as maize, squash, tomatoes, and peanuts. They built their houses using straw, palm leaves, or a type of bamboo native to the region, with a stone foundation. The Manteños were also specialized in diving for 𝘚𝘱𝘰𝘯𝘥𝘺𝘭𝘶𝘴, a bivalve native to the warm waters of coastal Ecuador, and which was believed to be food of the gods. They also used its orange and purple shell as currency, and it was used in trade across regions as far north as Mexico. The Manteños were never conquered by the Inca, who let the Manteños buy their independence with the divine Spondylus that only they knew how to retrieve due to their diving abilities. Carchi-Nariño Culture (700—1700 AD) The Carchi-Nariño culture developed in the mountains of Nariño (Southern Colombia) and Carchi (Northern Ecuador) from 700 to 1700 AD. They harvested quinoa and raised llamas for agriculture and trade. They made artwork out of materials such as wood, strings, and wool. Their work sometimes took the form of shaft burials, some being extremely deep, as much as 50 m. Their pottery reached important artistic development, being recognizable by its forms and decoration, emphasizing the negative painting or positive bicolor. Their jewelry work stands out for the large gold pectorals, nose rings, discs and plaques, all made with fine gold sheets and with complex geometric designs. External links Museo Nacional del Ecuador (MuNa)

La Palma's Cumbre Vieja volcano eruption of 2021 September 19 Cumbre Vieja volcano is one of the most active in the Canaries. Since October 2017 until June 2021, up to 8 earthquake swarms were registered under the Cumbre Vieja volcano, the historical active volcano in the southern half of La Palma, in the Canary Islands. On September 11, 2021, a new earthquake swarm of low intensity occurred in the south of the island. It slowly migrated to the surface, with earthquakes up to around 3.5 on the Richter scale, and over 25,000 recorded in the space of 10 days. A yellow warning was issued, covering 35,000 people in the municipalities of Los Llanos de Aridane, Fuencaliente, El Paso and Villa de Mazo. On Monday 13, 1500 small earthquakes were registered in Cumbre Vieja. After a magnitude 4.2 earthquake on 19 September at 15:11 local time (14:11 UTC), the volcano started erupting and the alert was raised to its highest level—red. Lava started flowing through a crack located between El Frontón and Hoya de Tajogaite, in a valley-like landscape. A new dynamic and energetic eruption is born in Cabeza de Vaca near the Montaña Rajada, in the Las Manchas section of El Paso municipality. September 20 La Palma's volcano opened a ninth mouth overnight 900 m north of the old ones as a magnitude 3.8 earthquake rocked the island, forcing fresh evacuations in Tacande as a new river of lava began flowing out, bringing the total number of people evacuated to 6,000. The average height of the lava flow was 6 m, meaning that any buildings in its way were easily consumed. So far, 166 homes have been destroyed, along with 250 acres of land. Within only the first day of the event, one of the volcanic vents has been constructing heaps of tephra, growing little by little and coalescing to an incipient volcanic cone. September 21 The La Palma volcano experiences a more ‘explosive phase’ within the main fissure, with a strong increase in the amplitude of the volcanic tremor due to a slower ascent of the lava that allows gases to concentrate and explode. The volcano has been releasing a lot of energy in the form of a 4500 m tall ash plume and pyroclasts and rocks of approximately one meter being thrown up 400 m in the air, before raining and plummeting down on nearby homes. The intensity of the explosions were mistaken for a new eruptive mouth, which would be the tenth, but it has been ruled out. Although the appearance of new fissures is part of the normal process of this type of strombolian eruptions in the Islands, some remaining active and others fading while new ones appear. There have been no further deformations and bulging on the surface of the earth, which currently stands at 30 centimeters, meaning that the magmatic material that rises is what remains on the surface. The lava flows are moving slower than expected, dropping from the inicial 700 m per hour to only 4 m, but now reach up to 12 m in height, easily destroying everything in its path, including almost 200 houses and hundreds of acres of valuable farmland. The volcano eruption is the first to take place on the island in 50 years, and it is likely to last for weeks and possibly months, causing widespread damage likely to exceed the value of €400 million. September 23 The aerosol plumes from the eruptions continue to travel along northern Africa and south Europe. The Copernicus's latest satellite-based measurements of SO₂ concentrations in the atmosphere depict that they will reach Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya including a large part of Iberian Peninsula and Mediterranean coasts of France and Italy on September 24. The highest level of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions will likely occur in these areas. The eruption is now concentrated on the new fissure near Tacande that opened yesterday. This morning, we could see tall lava fountains continuing from it as well as a new lava flow that reached approx. 1-2 km length in the area between Tacande and La Laguna. September 28 Since the La Palma Cumbre Vieja volcano erupted 9 days ago, it has expelled 46.3 million m³ of lava, which has covered over 230 hectares of the island, completely destroying 630 buildings and infrastructures and around 20 km of roads. In the 24 days the Teneguía –another vent of Cumbre Vieja volcano– was active in 1971, it expelled 3 million m³ less than the current vent has in only a week. After the seismic energy peak recorded on Friday, and after rain of lava and ash fragments, a significant portion of the southwestern flank of the main cone collapsed on September 25th, causing a new, looser and faster lava flow. The collapse has left a narrow horseshoe-shaped breach, which continued to produce violent pulsating lava fountains generating a massive flow headed into the sea. When the lava tongue, which has a temperature of around 1,000ºC, reaches the sea, which is little over 20ºC, there are four main dangers linked to the ocean entry of lava: The sudden collapse of new land and adjacent sea cliffs into the ocean, explosions triggered by the collapse, waves of scalding hot water washing onshore, and a chemical reaction that produces a steam plume that rains hydrochloric acid and tiny volcanic glass particles. The jets of lava and individual bombs reach up to around 1,000 m in height, and the associated ash plume rises to approximately 3 km height and slowly drifts towards northeasterly directions. Around El Paso and Tacande, there is now a thick deposit of lapilli from the ongoing eruption. September 29 The lava from the Cumbre Vieja volcano gushed for 10 days on La Palma until it poured down a cliff into the sea in the Playa Nueva area near the town of Tazacorte in the early hours of September 29. As day broke, red-hot lava protruded above the Atlantic Ocean waterline, sending clouds of steam and toxic gases into the sky. Smoke clouds billowed from the volcano and the molten rock as it flowed down Cumbre Vieja's western flank. All the people in a 2-km radius have been evacuated and a wider area is in lockdown, while all roads to the southern part of the islands had been cut off by the lava. #tajogaite #cabezadevaca #montañarajada #cumbrevieja #lapalma #eruption #volcano

La Palma's Cumbre Vieja volcano eruption of 2021 October 2 Two weeks after it first erupted on September 19th, the Cumbre Vieja volcano on La Palma continues to erupt at impressive intensity. The lava output rate remains very high and volcanic tremor is stable at high levels. Over 80 million m³ of lava have been emplaced so far, much more than originally estimated the eruption would be able to produce, likely due to the continued magma supply from a deeper source. The north-western summit vent started an impressive show of violent, near vertical fountaining reaching 300-500 m height. The new lava flow just below the north-western base of the cone make their way through untouched land north of the existing flow field, forming an impressive channel of approximately 50 m wide that is destroying additional buildings. 8 vents are producing several lava flows, some of which going directly into lava tubes, others overlapping older flows or feeding lava channels. Some of the lava still finds its way to the sea entry, where it has won 28 ha over the sea. The quake activity is quite intense, 26 quakes of magnitudes 3.0-3.7 have been recorded in the last 48 hours, located mostly at 10-15 km depth beneath the centre of Cumbre Vieja, the same place as the seismic swarm that preceded the eruption. This is the area between the upper mantle and crust of the island, where magma from the deeper source intrudes into the volcanic edifice. The quakes seem to remain stationary in this area, possibly because the new intrusions are able to use the existing pathways of magma through the island edifice. If there is a continuous supply from the mantle source, the eruption could last for much longer than expected. October 8 Up until October 8, the activity continued with no significant changes as the eruption approaches 3 weeks, during which it has covered more than 430 hectares of land and destroyed over 1,000 houses. The next day however, the eruption has been becoming stronger, with pressure increasing in the main cone. Strong ground vibrations from sustained, near-constant explosions can be felt in nearby areas. At the vents, ash-rich fountaining and vigorous lava spattering continues to produce lava flows on the northwest flank of the cone, and a significant ash and steam plume that forms a column rising 2-3 km and spreading along with the winds in various directions, currently including easterly currents, which unfortunately brings the ash plume to the airport area. This forced the closure of the airport since yesterday, forcing the diversion of flights to Tenerife. Near the eruption site, the air quality has been worsening again, because a strong thermal inversion at low elevations, between 600 and 700 meters of altitude, traps gas and ash from the eruption in the Aridane valley. The new lava flow arm that started yesterday from the southern margin of the main flow continued to advance between Los Guirres and El Charcón and now overlaps the lava delta (fajana) which had been created during the 1949 San Juan eruption, leaving an island of so far untouched land in between. The intensity of the eruption remains high, with only a slow decrease, but seismic activity beneath the island has increased, both in the number of earthquakes and in their magnitude. On October 8, two earthquakes, of magnitudes 3.5 and 2.5, occurred at only 8 km and 7 km depth, respectively, near Puerto Naos. A magnitude 4.3 earthquake, the largest earthquake since the Cumbre Vieja eruption on September 19, was recorded on October 7 near Villa de Mazo at a moderately shallow depth of 35 km. The locations of the quakes remain more or less the same, mostly at 10-15 km depth beneath the center of the volcano. October 10 The eruption continues at similar levels as during the past days. Explosions have been stronger and near constant this morning, with highly noisy, energetic and sustained explosions. Vibration of soil, vehicles and windows can be felt in the entire range of more than 5-6 km around the vents. Suggested by ongoing elevated tremor, lava effusion rates remain high. New lava arms have advanced at the western fronts at the coast and the existing ocean entry as well as in the upper northern margin, where tongues of lava flows have reached the Calle Principal de Tajuya where industrial buildings are located. Deformation of the ground has remained stable, with a weak trend of deflation in some points. Earthquakes continued to increase slowly in numbers and intensity, though. During the past 24 hours, there was 1 quake of magnitude 4.1, 50 quakes between 3.0 and 3.9, and 100 quakes between 2.0 and 2.9. The quakes remain clustered at 10-15 km depth beneath the central part of the volcano, with a few events at various locations at 35-40 km depth in the upper mantle beneath the island. October 11 Volcanic lightning over La Palma's Cumbre Vieja volcano eruption, triggered by the friction of colliding pyroclasts –and sometimes water– releasing ions within the volcanic plume. It's a rare phenomenon that has occurred for the first time in La Palma. During the past 14 days, La Palma was shaken by 7 quakes of magnitude 4.0 or above, 287 quakes between 3.0 and 4.0, and 607 quakes between 2.0 and 3.0. The lava forms a rather narrow front, with a fast rate of advance, at about 500-700 m per hour. It is now hoped that its channel or tube system will remain stable to direct the lava straight into the ocean instead of widening the flow or branching off, which would put the town of La Laguna at risk. The current seismic activity shows worrying signs, pointing towards that more magma is moving upwards: several earthquakes have appeared at depths less than 7-9 km; after the 4.2 quake three days ago (October 9), there have been episodes of spasmodic tremor with many earthquakes in a row that indicate movement of magma in depth; since two days ago (October 10), the appearance of strong volcanic tremor at around 18 Hz frequency thought to be caused by depressurization of fluids at great depth around 10 km. In the best scenario, the current conduits will continue to cope with it and the magma will erupt from the existing vents. In the worst scenario, magma could open new fissures in a different area. In a scenario in between, new fissures might open near the existing vents, and new lava would erupt onto existing lava fields. October 13 Since its origin, Cumbre Vieja volcano on the Spanish island of La Palma has expelled over 400,000 tons of SO₂, more than all active volcanoes throughout all of 2020, breaking the world record and surpassing the previous holder of the title, Miyakejima volcano. Rivers of molten rock that were described as 'a true lava tsunami' forced the evacuation of more than 300 people late Thursday. The lava is expected to flow to advance to the northwest, beyond the boundary of the evacuated area. It has spread to 732,5 hectares, destroying 1,817 buildings and burying nearly 60 km of roads, and since the eruption started on September 19, about 7,000 people had to flee since the eruption. On the south-eastern slope of the main cone, a new vent opened around 08:30 pm. The new eruptive centre emits gas and pyroclasts. During the past 14 days, La Palma volcano was shaken by 16 quakes of magnitude 4.0 or above, 347 quakes between 3.0 and 4.0, and 815 quakes between 2.0 and 3.0. Today (October 16) at 5:41 a.m., La Palma was hit by the largest earthquake since the eruption began. The quake rattled the island with a magnitude 4.6 and it was felt all over the island. It is one of seven quakes of magnitude 4.0 and above so far since yesterday. As the other larger quakes, it was located deep under Cumbre Vieja volcano, at 37 km depth. The interpretation of these deep and often comparably larger quakes in relationship with the ongoing eruption is still matter of debate. Explosive activity–the lava fountain in particular–has decreased a lot and often is absent. The eruption has transformed to be dominantly effusive. This could mean that the magma richest in gas, usually at the top of a magma batch in the reservoir, has erupted first and has been exhausted by now. October 21 On October 21, the island was rocked late at night by its most intense earthquake since the island’s volcano started to erupt a month ago. The quake, of magnitude 4.8, was felt not only across the island but also in the neighbouring island of Tenerife. It is feared that the force of the tremors will intensify; in light of the current level of seismicity, the earthquakes could register a magnitude of 6. The current Cumbre Vieja eruption has expelled 10 million m³ of pyroclasts covering 6,800 hectares. Regrettably, the eruption continues still with no signs that could fuel hopes it might stop any time soon. After swallowing the village of Todoque in its entirety, the lava flows have reached the centre of La Laguna, which is in the course of being completely destroyed as well. In terms of economic damage, it already ranks among the most devastating volcanic eruptions in the recent history worldwide. October 22 The eruption continues with activity fluctuating between more and less intense phases at the vents. Near-constant fountaining form the summit vent at the cone produces dense ash emissions that rose to approx. 2,800 m today, while lava spattering and lava flow effusion can be seen from the lower vent. However, most lava is likely invisible at the vents as it is going directly into a system of underground lava tubes that have formed with time and transport it to various areas of the active flow field, which continues to advance slowly at various fronts, mostly along its northern margins. Volcanic tremor levels remain high, suggesting that the magma rate as well continues to be very high, estimated to be around 60-70 cubic meters a second. Volcanic earthquakes continue to increase if not in size but in numbers; during the latest 24-hour period, the National Geographic Institute (IGN) detected 135 earthquakes under the island, 14 of which were felt by people. The strongest quake was a magnitude 4.4 event at 11.54 p.m. last night, while another quake of magnitude 4.2 occurred earlier this morning. Both of these stronger ones were in the deeper layer between 35-40 km depth. Most other quakes were under the center of Cumbre Vieja at around 12 km depth “as usual”; this area is believed to be where the magma is stored before rising to the erupting vents. There are 7 active vents from which different materials emanate. Each of the 4 vents of the main cone presents its own characteristic activity, which is as following from west to east (upslope): a first Hawaiian vent which solely emits pāhoehoe lava flows; a second pulsating Hawaiian vent with gases; a third vent which emits gases and water vapor; and a fourth Strombolian vent which emits pyroclasts and gases. Due to the considerable slope of the terrain in the direction in which the fissure opened, high pressure lava fountains, pyroclastic materials and gases were emitted mostly from the higher volcanic vents, while from the lower vents only more or less degasified lava poured out with a much lower explosivity. This is because in upper vents, gas bubbles usually form a type of conduit within the magma column, causing magma to erupt as gas jets with little liquid and more ash; whereas areas at the margins of the main column might be largely degassed on the other hand, and these will form liquid, but lower fountains or entirely effusive vents. The secondary cone, 300 m away from the main one, possesses a phreatomagmatic vent which emits water vapor, gases and ashes. External water—from the groundwater system—somtimes interacts with the magma. Depending on how much water is present and able to interact with the magma, this interaction can completely change the dynamics of the activity at some or even all vents. Water can absorb a lot of energy, but if in contact with magma, it typically transforms into steam as result, which goes with a thousand times increase of volume. If the generated steam is not easily released, it becomes over-pressured, and once this pressure overcomes the surrounding containing pressure, it will result in violent explosions known as phreatomagmatic. Phreatomagmatic activity is more likely to occur at the vents furthest away from the center, where magma rises through older rock layers that might still contain water or are in connection with aquifers. The main cone currently stands at 200 meters tall and the dense ash emissions rise to approximately 2,800 m. Most lava is invisible as it is going directly into a system of lava tubes and transport it to various areas of the flow field, which continues to advance slowly at various fronts, mostly along its northern margins. The intense volcanic tremor suggest that the magma rate likewise continues to be very high, estimated at 60-70 m³/s. Different colours can bee seen in the smoke emanating from the active cone. Each colour reveals its composition. The dark grey plume is composed of fresh ashes and is primarily generated by explosive activity such as lava fountains. Plumes that are brownish in colour carries older ashes, and this is produced during a collapse in the cone, lava bomb impacts, landslides, etc. When the plume is reddish, it contains old rock which has been chemically eroded and ground, and is caused by the weakening of old conduits or unclogging explosions of the main vent. The colour white, which is very common, carries no ashes and is solely composed of water vapour and is generated by effusive activity or fumaroles. A blue hue signifies sulphur dioxide, produced by strombolian eruptions, fumaroles and effusive activity. October 25 The eruption has become more intense than ever. The volcano shows strong explosive and effusive activity. The summit vents have been producing spectacular lava fountains and an ash plume that rose to 3,800 m. Following the intense activity from at least four vents, parts of the western crater walls at the vents collapsed and gave way to short-lived floods of lava on the slopes of the cone. The combined explosive-effusive activity paired with high amounts of magma reaching the surface has been causing changes in the morphological configuration of the growing cone, such as rapid accumulation against the forces of gravity, collapses, drag of ejected material, and formation of tubes. At least 4 or 5 active vents are aligned in a row, with different behaviour as the magma pressure varies with the height of the vents themselves and the complex interactions of the rising gasses and the fluid magma in the conduits. Earthquakes have increased in numbers, most at around 12 km depth under the central part of Cumbre Vieja and a few deeper ones around 35 km depth. Ground deformation has no clear trend, which suggests that magma pressure from below is stable. This might be due to the progressive supply of magma from deeper sources to balance the erupting volumes, keeping the eruption at an equilibrium, which could possibly indicate that the eruption could go on for longer still and that a soon end is not in sight. October 26 On October 26, the visible activity at the vents had slightly decreased at first. The drastic morphological reconfigurations at the vent had likely created new conditions which facilitated that the arriving magma could more easily find new ways to enter existing conduits or create new ones. Instead of slowly deflating as the magma chamber is being emptied by the eruption, the ground near the eruption site in fact rose dramatically, around 10 cm. This amount of inflation may have been caused by more magma arriving from depth into shallower reservoirs than what was erupting. Compared to the daily average, half as many earthquakes occurred that day, yet one of the strongest quakes so far was registered at magnitude 4.9 at 40 km depth. The explosive activity greatly increased in the evening, producing a tall lava fountain at the main vent which reached up to 600 m in height, while other vents produced dense ash. This day marks the 50th anniversary of the forelast eruption of Cumbre Vieja, the Teneguía, which lasted 24 days, from October 26 to November 18, 1971. It is called the "Friendly Volcano" by locals, as it did not cause much damage, highly contrasting with the ongoing eruption. October 27 On October 27, the explosive activity remains very high since it increased the day before. Tall lava fountains, reaching up to 600 m in height, rise from the vents, while others produce dense ash and lava spattering. Lava can also be seen flowing on the surface away from the cone. This seems to be in accordance with an increase in the number of earthquakes. On this day, there were 4 quakes between magnitudes 4.0-4.7 alone, as well as about 130 quakes of around 2.5-3.9. One magnitude 4 quake occurred at the shallow depth of 13 km, which is suspected to be the main reservoir of the magma before it rises to the vents. Apparently, peaks in earthquake activity precede phases with increased lava supply several hours later. At first, magma pressure at depth increases either by surges from newly arriving magma or from temporary blockages in the conduits above, preventing a sufficient release at the eruption; then, the pressure on the surrounding rocks create new fissures, resulting in earthquakes; finally, the magma then rises through the new and existing conduits until it reaches the surface hours later. October 30 The island was shaken by an intense magnitude 5.1 earthquake at 39 km depth underneath the centre of Cumbre Vieja at 07:24 am local time. This is the strongest quake to date since the start of the eruption in September as well as the seismic crisis. The volcanic tremor is very high, and the bright glow from the lava fountain indicates the elevated activity. The quake may mean there is yet another pulse of magma from a deeper source on its way to the surface, in which case, the activity might increase in the course of the day. The VAAC (Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre) of Toulouse has warned about a volcanic ash plume that reached about 3000 m in height and is moving at 18.5 km/h in a westerly direction. October 31 — November 3 Due to an inversion, the Aridane Valley was covered in thick vog (volcanic fog), which mixed with an incoming dense Saharan dust surge, severely decreasing the visibility and air quality. Vog from the eruption of Cumbre Vieja has been seen in satellite imagery, streaming towards Europe and across the Atlantic Ocean. Vog, also known as smog, is a form of air pollution that results when sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and other gases and particles emitted by an erupting volcano react with oxygen and moisture in the presence of sunlight. Typically, in a dense Saharan dust surge, the sky can appear dull or tan. In contrast, sulphur oxides are colorless, and vog looks grey. Once the vog layer dissipates, grey spots of vog in the sky may, for a time, remain trapped in the inversion layer. SO₂ is a colorless, irritating gas that has an acrid odor like fireworks or a burning match. It is also emitted from sources such as fossil fuel power plants and motor vehicles. Fine particles consist of particulate matter less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter and are referred to as 'PM2.5'. These particles are smaller than the width of human hair. PM2.5 in vog is mainly composed of acid and neutral sulfate particles. Other sources of PM2.5 include vehicle exhaust and smoke from fires. Vog contains mostly SO₂ and acid particles, in contrast to urban, industrial, and other pollution sources, containing additional toxic contaminants, such as ozone and hydrocarbons. The amount of SO₂ emanating from the volcano has been decreasing over the last few days. Even though the SO₂ levels remain very high, it has been decreasing for the last 7 days and it is already below 5,000 tons per day. The magnitude 5.1 event of November 3 is likely the strongest-so-far tremor under the volcano since the seismic crisis followed by the ongoing eruption began in September. It was felt all over the island, and if the depth is correct of only 26 km it deviates significantly from the depth layer around 35-40 km, which has been where other stronger quakes in the range of magnitudes 4.5-5 that have occurred so far. This could be due to new magma intrusion into intermediate layers at this depth. It will be important to see whether it will be followed by an increase of lava activity in the near future (several hours from now possibly). #tajogaite #cabezadevaca #montañarajada #cumbrevieja #lapalma #eruption #volcano

La Palma's Cumbre Vieja volcano eruption of 2021 November 4 The eruption continues with no significant changes in observed and measured parameters. At the cone, several vents remain active with near-continuous pulsating ash-rich lava fountains, as well as intermittent stronger explosions, generating an ash plume rising approx. 2 km today. Most of the erupted lava is directly entering the lava tube system from the lower vents. Volcanic tremor has increased again compared to yesterday, but still remains lower than the average of the past weeks. Whether its amplitude corresponds to the lava output rate is in parts speculation; visually, the latter seems to be reduced at the moment. The lava flows did not advance significantly over the past 24 hours, with nearly all activity occurring along the southern margins of the active flow field. Trade winds today are carrying the ash plume, approximately 2 km high, towards the SW over the ocean, which is good for the airport on the east side to be operational. Ash fall in the Aridane valley is increasingly a problem. More army personnel is called in to help remove the heavy load from roof and the streets before rains set in and make it much worse, as it will then form a natural cement-like mixture and increase its weight. November 5 Overall activity—the eruption at the vent, the lava flows and internal seismic activity—has been lower. Ash emissions are intermittently intense, and the ash plume reached 2.4 km in altitude. The lava flows remain active, and they have so far covered an area of ​​nearly 10 km² and destroyed 2,581 houses. It might appear as if the peak of the eruption is over and that it has entered a phase of slowly dying down, but tremor remains significant and even has been increasing again. Additionally, ground deformation has once again been showing a trend of uplift, now approximately 13-14 cm, suggesting that more magma is being stored at depth than what is being erupted. Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions have risen also, to 29,000 tons per day and 1,850 tons per day, respectively. This increase fits with the model of more magma arriving at depth. Moreover, elemental sulphur has appeared on the cone for the first time, pointing towards a clear change in the dynamic of the eruption. A reaction of hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) to form sulphur would entail that the magmatic component of the gas is decreasing whereas the emissions of H₂S are increasing. November 8 The activity at the vents continues to gradually decrease visually and audibly. Less explosions have occurred and degassing noises are becoming less intense. Explosions at the vent are intermittent and no longer as vigorous as before, ash emissions, however, seem to have picked up. Lava emission continues, but likewise less vigorously. Some lava flows on the lower flanks of the cone, overlapping older flows. Volcanic tremor has remained at similar levels have plateaued, but generally continues to decrease. Hopes are emerging that the eruption may be coming to an end, but this is still too early to be certain of. A pair of two quakes with magnitudes 4.5 and 4.6 occurred last afternoon at 5.07 pm at approximately 38 km depth within 10 seconds from each other, but so far, there seems not to be any significant change in eruption intensity that clearly correlates. It is not known what the exact significance of these and other quakes is at the moment. Whether it is caused by an injection of new magma at depth, or gravitational adjustments perhaps caused by the depletion of magma from there or other reasons, is speculation. November 9 The eruption undergoes few changes. Intermittent ash-rich lava fountains and strombolian-type explosions produce steam and ash plumes that continue to rise to 2.4 km in altitude, which drift southwest over the Atlantic. Lava effusion remains significant, likely at similar levels as during the past days, because the volcanic tremor signal and deformation data show no significant changes. It may not seem as abundant mainly because most of the lava erupted at the vents is flowing directly into a tube system and feeds various parts of the flow field, both by inflating it and creating new surface flows or outbreaks, on top of existing flows or as new outbreaks detaching from its margins. While the latter lava flow activity has been less frequent in the past days and made for hopes the eruption might be exhausted, it has changed today: a new flow front detached from the southwestern margin and reached the beach of Los Guirres, south of the existing older sea delta, at 10.50 am local time. Fortunately, the lava flowing into the sea is at least not damaging so-far untouched land. November 10—12 The number of quakes under the island has increased significantly again during the latest 24 hours, in particular the occurrence of quakes in the deeper layer around 35 km, where two shocks of magnitudes 4.2 and 4.8 were recorded on November 10, at 11:10 am and 1:23 pm, respectively. Additionally, two quakes of magnitudes 5.0 and 4.1 were registered on November 11 and November 12, respectively. All quakes were felt widely on the whole island, being several of the strongest in the current seismic and volcanic crisis. As to their meaning, it can only be speculated upon whether they signify a potential re-supply of magma at depth or perhaps the opposite, i.e. internal adjustments after magma has left storage areas below. A better interpretation of these events is likely only to follow after more time has passed. In the meanwhile, volcanic tremor continues to follow its slowly decreasing trend as yesterday and is low when compared to previous weeks, but still significant, in tandem with continued lava effusion that resulted in the spectacular lava flows falling over the sea cliff today. All the observable data shows that the deepest part of the system that feeds the volcano is becoming less active and has less capacity to provide magma and feed the eruption for more time. These indicators include the falling levels of sulphur dioxide and the drop in seismic activity. Sulphur dioxide emissions, however, still remain high, with between 16,600 and 23,100 tons emitted a day, and more time must pass before the downward trend can be confirmed. November 13 Activity continues with no significant changes, with similar intensity as during the past days, while on a very gradually decreasing trajectory. The eruption is now mainly effusive, producing lava flows. At the vents, explosive activity has been only intermittent and comparably weak recently, although still able to produce plumes rising to up to 2-3 km during phases of more intense activity such as this morning. Most of the time, however, only dense steam plumes rise from the craters, while fluid, degassed magma continues to arrive and flow through a tube system to arrive at the new active sea entry, where a second delta is now growing and has largely destroyed the beach of Los Guirres. Volcanic tremor is stable, at similar levels as during the past days with some increase overall today. Seismic activity has calmed down a lot, with only 10 quakes above magnitude 3 recorded in 24 hours. However, these include a strong quake of magnitude 5.0 occurred this morning shortly before 7 a.m., again in the deeper layer at 38 km depth. Ground deformation continues to show a weak trend of deflation. All in all, the eruption does not seem to be ending soon, but likely is in its long tailing-off phase. The eruption claimed its first life. A 72-year old man was killed while cleaning his roof from the heavy load of ash when the roof collapsed. He had a special permit to enter the restricted area to look after his home. November 18 Nature has willed for the Cumbre Vieja volcano to remain active on the day that is half a century since the end of its forelast eruption, the Teneguía, which lasted 24 days, from October 26 to November 18, 1971. The Cumbre Vieja continues to rumble 60 days after it first started erupting on September 19. The increasing trend of activity at the volcano ended suddenly last night, when volcanic tremor abruptly fell to lower levels comparable to those before the surge of activity in the past two days. In tandem with the volcanic tremor (believed to correlate with magma supply rates), visible lava activity has been significantly lower today as well. Less lava was visible at the surface and the active fronts advanced less than had been feared. Still, another 12 hectares of new land have been covered, mostly banana plantations, by the active flow (labelled #4 on official maps) that has been advancing between the cinder cones Montañas de Todoque and La Laguna, and was about 300 m from the sea earlier today. Despite the falling tremor, explosive activity has been quite intense today, with phases of near-continuous lava fountains and strong ash emissions generating a plume that rose to over 3,000 m altitude and drifted in easterly and southeasterly directions. Reported gas emissions have increased again, to very high values of 16,000-32,000 tons of SO₂ per day, mainly directly from the vents, and 2,300-2,500 tons of CO₂, mainly in the form of diffuse emissions from the soil. In the beginning of the eruption, up to 50,000 tons of SO₂ were injected into the atmosphere per day. Deformation of the ground continues to show a slow trend of deflation. Earthquakes decreased also by about 70% in intensity and numbers compared to yesterday. During the past 24 hours, there were 3 quakes of magnitudes 4.3-4.6 as well as 33 quakes between 3.0-3.9 (while there were more than 100 yesterday). Overall, the eruption continues to follow a very slowly declining trend, but seems far from over. November 19 — 20 The eruption has shifted most of the visible activity to the area close to the vents again. Like yesterday, there were continuous low lava fountains with dense ash emissions, producing a plume reaching 3,500 m altitude, as well as a new significant lava overflow from the vents. The ash and steam plume reached 3,500 m height today. It seems that sections of the northern crater wall in the cone collapsed, allowing contained lava to surge out in a short flood, or that generally, more lava is arriving at the rims and able to overflow them. As in the previous cases this happened during the past weeks, a new voluminous lava flow traveled downhill from the cone and invaded new areas, destroying more buildings in its path. It is not known or easy to say what exactly causes such lava surges. It could be the result of a temporary increase in magma supply or actually also be caused by a decrease of the amount of lava going into the tube system, possibly caused by some obstacles or blockages, forcing some of it to erupt onto the surface at the vent is unknown. Volcanic tremor remains similar as yesterday, but inflation has again increased a bit and totals around 9 cm compared to pre-eruption levels at the station closest to the eruption, which suggests that new magma has been accumulating beneath the surface (and yet has to come out). On November 19, a magnitude 5.1 quake at 01:08 am, the largest earthquake since the eruption began, woke up the island. The numbers of quakes remained relatively low, with 10 quakes in total of magnitudes ranging from 3.0-4.0. This however changed on November 22, with 51 earhquakes in total. The strongest one being of magnitude 4.8 at 36 km depth, as well as a deep 2.7 magnitude quake at 45 km depth. Sulfur dioxide emissions increased to high values of around 24,000 tons per day. Along with the continued inflation and perhaps the occurrence of strong quakes in the magnitude 4-5 range might indicate that more magma is able to erupt in the near future. On November 20, the scientific committee of the Canary Islands Volcanic Emergency Plan (Pevolca) raised the rating from VEI 2 to VEI 3, based on the 10 million m³ of ejected tephra measure. November 22 Lava flow number 7 reached the sea to the north of the first lava delta on November 22, closer to the port of Tazacorte. As of now, there are three lava deltas including this one. November 26 The activity remains elevated. After yesterday's surges of lava from a new fissure system south of the cone, lava fountains returned to the main vents at the cone, first in form of a round dome-shaped fountain of very liquid lava from the lower vent, and later as a taller, more gas-rich jetting fountain from the summit vent which had been very active especially in the early phase of the eruption. The latter activity has continued throughout a very stormy and rainy night and into this morning, then decreased a bit although it still produces fountains. The generated ash plumes rose to up to 3,500 m altitude and drifted east where it continues to disable the airport, now closed for 6 or 7 days in a row. Many airlines have canceled flights to La Palma altogether for the whole time up to spring next year due to the uncertainty whether the airport is operational or not, and whether they can actually fill seats. Requests to travel to the island likely have dropped massively, further damaging its economy that already suffered a very hard blow from the eruption. Seismic activity overall remains low and comparable to the past days. The National Geographic Institute (IGN) reported a total of 44 earthquakes in its latest 24-hour reporting period. 5 of them were felt by the population and the strongest one was last night's magnitude 4.8 quake at 10:40 pm with a depth of 37 km. The seismicity continues under the central area of ​​Cumbre Vieja volcano in the same areas as before. Most of the latest recorded earthquakes are located at depths 10-15 km and only 7 of them at depths greater than 30 km. The amplitude of the volcanic tremor signal continues to be low, but with very significant upwards spikes corresponding to the increased lava effusion phases, one likely in progress as there is a new tall spike visible. Inflation has restarted at the LP3 station closest to the vents. Likely, this means another pulse of magma underway, which (as a speculation) could be in relationship with last night's magnitude 4.8 quake. In the other stations, the slight deflation possibly related to deep seismicity has stabilized, IGN reported. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions were at 5,250 tons per day. The current height of the cone was measured at 1,126 m above sea level, but it's likely to continue to grow even more with time. November 28 Several new vents opened this morning at the northern and northeastern base of the main cone, producing lava fountains and emitting new lava flows that travel around the northern side of the cone. This comes as a result of a new surge of magma that announced itself as underway by the recently observed inflation during yesterday and the previous day. Instead of erupting through the existing vents at the cone, like on Thursday, the magma chose to create new vents nearby - likely, the older conduits at the cone have become too high and too "difficult" to reach compared to creating new fissures at the base of the cone. Sulphur dioxide emissions also have once again peaked with a rate of 30,000 to 50,000 tons a day. The lava flows from the new vents have quickly crossed the Tacande road and are enlarging the northern margin of the flow field, covering new so-far untouched land in that part. The ongoing eruption is already counting as the largest on La Palma Island in over 500 years. It has likely overtaken the 1585 eruption at Tahuya as the largest by volume eruption on the island in recorded history. The latter erupted approx. 300 million cubic meters (or 0.3 cu km) of lava, while the exact volume of the current and still ongoing eruption is estimated to be at about this value already. Along with the new vents allowing magma to quickly rise through a new (and compared to the older vents likely "easier") path, volcanic tremor has jumped up significantly this morning. At the same time, the inflation from the past days has been neutralized by an almost equal deflation signal - this suggests that the extra amount of magma stored recently has been erupted during the ongoing surge of activity that began this morning. How long it will last will be shown in the near future. The opening of the vents was not accompanied by significantly changed seismic activity, which indicates that the magma needed little energy to break through the ground at nearby locations as before. Earthquakes have increased marginally in numbers, but not in energy during the past 24 hours. The National Geographic Institute recorded 91 events of magnitudes up to 3.5. The activity at the old and new vents produces dense ash plumes, rising to 1,600 m above sea level and drifting southwest over the Atlantic Ocean (and sparing the airport on the east coast). As to the other lava flows, activity continues to feed them as well: according to the latest official summary of the situation, the flows labelled #7, #4-5 and #1-9, as well as #10, which has merged with #11 further south, but stopped its advance. Various active fronts are fed by the tube system, most notably in the area near Laguna Hill. The total area covered by lava flows, including the lava deltas, stands at 1,151 hectares. The new lava flow from the fissure on the northern side of the cone have already reached a length of a few kilometers and their fronts have reached the area of La Laguna as well as Dos Pinos. November 29 The eruption continues at elevated levels with low lava fountaining and abundant lava flow emission from the new vents that opened yesterday morning around the northern base of the cone. Associated ash emissions have been rising to 1,400 m altitude and drifting south-southwest over the sea. The new lava flows follow a route around the northwestern side of the cone and have been advancing quickly north of the existing flow field, on their path invading new land and destroying additional structures. So far, 2,695 building have fallen victim to the lava flows since the start of the eruption. The most northerly of the active flows has come dangerously close to the main LP-3 road junction in Tajuya, which is the principal artery for traffic to connect the Aridane Valley with El Paso. Volcanic tremor has dropped from its steep peak, but remains elevated when compared to the situation before the new vents opened, likely in tandem with ongoing high lava effusion rates. November 30 Abundant lava effusion as well as mild fountaining and ash emissions from the new vents around the northern feet of the cone continue at similar levels as the day before. Volcanic tremor fluctuates strongly around moderate levels, while seismic activity is picking up and overall deflation of the ground continues, which points to rapid discharge of stored magma. Lava flows advanced into so-far untouched parts of the industrial area of Los Llanos. Seismic activity reached a record number of 374 quakes of magnitudes above 2 during a 24 hour window on November 30. Volcanic tremor has increased and continues to fluctuate strongly. While internal activity is high, the visible activity has decreased a bit since yesterday. According to official statement, there are now "moments" with no (or almost no) activity at the vents. These alternate with phases of frequent and loud explosions, sometimes accompanied by short-lived lava fountains and ash emissions. The lava flows that had been spectacularly active in the past days continue to be visible near the vents, but were much less so in the past 12 hours. It might be that some of this apparent decrease is due to the fact that most lava is flowing inside the tunnels, but on the other hand, there has been very little advance at the fronts, most of which seem to be cooling now. According to the latest data, the area covered by lava flows stands at 1,134 hectares, out of which 43.46 ha are at the southern and 5.05 ha at the northern lava delta. The lava flow field has a maximum with of 3,350 meters. As seen multiple times in the past weeks, the apparent (at least relative) calm of visible activity can change very quickly, and is likely no indication that the eruption is close to an end. #tajogaite #cabezadevaca #montañarajada #cumbrevieja #lapalma #eruption #volcano

La Palma's Cumbre Vieja volcano eruption of 2021 December 2 After the surge of magma during the past days, the activity has dropped again significantly, but a new signal of ground uplift announced that a new batch of magma is on the rise and being stored, and will be coming out as a new surge. Volcanic tremor remains comparably high and has strong temporary peaks, indicating magma flux remains significant. There is certainly no sign of the eruption ending soon. In the morning, ash plumes rose to 1,900 m and drifted into southerly and southwesterly directions over the ocean (leaving the airport free). Lava flows continued to be active near the new vents and along the path towards La Laguna. Some of the older lava tubes also remain active with smaller breakouts mostly in the central area of the flow field, but no or very little lava is currently reaching the ocean entries. The intense lava fountaining has already created a new cone adjacent and now morphologically likely soon merging with the main cone. Several lava flows descended from the vent area over a steep slope into the area of Tacande and the northern margin of the existing lava flow field. The new lava flow was labelled #12 and is in parts parallel to #8 and downslope joins or overlies it. On its way, it covered new areas and destroyed additional buildings, unfortunately. As of yesterday evening, its active fronts were located about 800 meters from La Laguna. December 4 The new lava flow at the southern margin of the flow field is advancing southwesterly towards Camino La Majada, covering land that had been left untouched between the previous lava flows labeled #3 and #11. The new lava flow, which was initially fast-flowing, has slowed down by now, as it lost fluidity along its path. Lava flows #7, 8 and 10 continue also be fed, but less than during the past days, and no lava is currently arriving at the sea deltas. The lava flows from the new vent system that had been extremely active in the past days were practically inactive today. The activity at the vents has decreased significantly as well. Lava fountaining has apparently ceased, and is replaced by intermittent and weaker strombolian activity. Ash emissions have become less vigorous and discontinuous, but low plumes were still produced, reaching approximately 2,000 m altitude and drifted westerly over the Atlantic. However, despite the lower activity, the gas emissions, in particular sulfur dioxide (SO₂), remain high, which suggests that there is still a high amount of magma available at depth. The affected area by lava flows stands at estimated 1,146 hectares, with a maximum width of 3,350 meters. December 7 Activity overall continues to decline. Ash emissions and explosions at the vent have been rare and intermittent, but produce occasional plumes rising up to approximately 2 km in altitude. Lava effusion continues at similar levels, but seems to be now again mainly coming from the vents at the main cone, while the new fissure that opened last week at the southern margin of the flow field west of Montaña Cogote is less active and has merged with the southernmost older flow. Its front has merged with flow number #9 in the flat lava delta that had formed in the 1949 eruption, but has so far not entered the ocean. Volcanic tremor remains similar as yesterday at low levels without many fluctuations. Seismic activity continues to decrease as well. On December 6, only about 20 quakes were registered during a 24 hour period, likely the lowest number since the beginning of the eruption. No significant changes have been seen in other monitored parameters, such as deformation and gas emissions. December 12 Around noon local time, a sudden large explosion occurred at the main crater of the cone, producing a steam and ash plume that quickly rose to estimated 5,000-6,000 meters altitude. The event was likely a so-called vulcanian explosion, typically caused when a larger plug in the upper conduit has formed and is suddenly thrown out when gas pressure underneath overcomes a threshold (comparable to a cannon-shot mechanism). Today's explosion likely might be due to the fact that the conduits have gradually been closing up and filling with debris in their upper parts as supply of rising material is less abundant. This fits with the model that the eruption has entered its final waning stage, but also creates highly dangerous conditions, because such explosions could (and likely will) repeat in the days to come. Apart from this, the eruption—now on its 87th day of activity being the longest in recorded history on La Palma Island—has continued at low levels similar as in the past days. There is now mainly steaming, with only occasional smaller explosions, at the main cone, while lava effusion continues at reduced rate. The arriving lava first goes into the tube system, and feeding flows in similar areas as during the past days overlapping older flows. Seismic activity has been low, with only 24 quakes detected during 24 horus, the maximum being only a 3.2 event. Deformation and tremor remain basically unchanged at low values, although the explosion earlier resulted in a short-lived intense tremor peak. December 13 After yesterday's large explosion at noon, the eruption gained in intensity, both explosive and effusive, during the evening and night. After being quieter most of the day today, it increased again in the evening, shown by the strongly fluctuating volcanic tremor signal. Phases of strong ash emissions and lava fountains have been alternating with quiet periods when only steaming could be seen at the craters. Ash plumes reached 4,200 m above sea level this morning, and reportedly up to 7,000 m in the afternoon, and drifted southeast. Absence of wind near the ground created very high SO2 concentrations in El Paso today, with values surpassing 2.590 micrograms per cubic meter this morning. Lava continues to flow from the (hidden) vents on the western base of the cone into the tube system and crate breakouts in the central part of the flow field. One of the more active surface flows began to eat away one of the remaining islands of so-far untouched land in the area south of Todoque and east of Las Norias. The number of quakes has again increased in numbers: During the past 24 hours, there have been 4 quakes of magnitudes 3.0-3.4 and 46 quakes between 2.0 and 2.9. Most of these occurred at the shallow layer around 10-15 km depth while only very few ones occurred at the deeper layer of 30 km or below. The decrease of seismic activity in the deeper layer might indicate that magma supply from that area is less now than during previous weeks when lots of magnitude 4+ quakes occurred there, but this remains speculative. No significant changes in deformation has been recorded. December 14 The eruption might have stopped or is pausing today, which is day #89 since it started on Sep 19, 2021. After a temporary strong increase yesterday producing lava fountaining and tall ash plumes, visible activity decreased drastically and more or less ceased today. No significant explosions or lava flows can be seen. Volcanic tremor has dropped to its lowest levels since the eruption began, and is close to absent now. The absence of tremor in the signal in turn allows to detect tiny quakes of magnitudes below 2, which leads to an increase in the number of total detected quakes - IGN reported 129 events, but only 5 of them were at least of magnitude 3 and none above 3.2, which is among the lowest-by-energy combined values counts since the beginning of the eruption. Whether or not the eruption is now already at its end is hard to say, but it is most likely at least close to it. December 15 No new activity has been reported at the eruption site since it ceased yesterday. No signs of moving magma have been registered for 24 hours, all vents have ceased to emit lava and the seismicity has also dropped. Chances increase that the eruption is over, although this is far from certain. There are several parameters which are key to predict the end of the eruption and they all bode well: There is no deformation, volcanic tremor is absent, intermediate and deep seismicity are nearly non-existent, and the levels of SO₂ are below 5 tons per day, well below the 100 tons per day threshold which, if maintained between 5 and 10 days, would indicate the end of the eruption. Whether the eruption has ended or not will depend on whether magma still stored in the reservoir beneath the surface is able to ascend, which in turn is likely dependant on two main factors: First, whether the shallow reservoir is being resupplied by magma from the deeper source, which should manifest with the occurrence of deeper earthquakes which, lately, have been mostly absent, suggesting that supply from the deep source has ended. Second, the ascent of magma from the shallow reservoir is driven by gases dissolved in the magma and forming bubbles to increase volume and pressure and eventually make the magma rise to erupt as lava. If, and this is maybe a likely scenario, most of the gases have already left the system or if the remaining gases can separate efficiently from the liquid (magma), and rise and degas at the vents and through the surface, the magma will slowly start cooling down and eventually crystallize over a very long period of time. It is also very much possible that the current pause of the eruption leads to a blockage of the upper conduits, which disables the degassing process and generates conditions that could lead to sudden explosions and allowing probably smaller batches of remaining magma to erupt in short phases of reactivation. Nobody knows for now. The situation remains volatile and care should be taken to make any predictions of whether activity will resume or not. December 18 A small lava flow has been detected flowing over older ones and gushing over the cliffs of Las Hoyas. This remaining lava flows from a still active lava tube. However, signs for exhaustion are maintained, but the possibility of peaks in strombolian activity and lava emission should not yet be ruled out. On the other hand, visible emission of gases is punctual and sporadic, and are concentrated on the area of the eruptive centres and in jameos (volcanic tubes whose roof collapsed). Continuous small landslides occur on the walls of the craters of the main and secondary cone, facilitated by existing faults and fissures. On December 17, the diffuse emission of CO₂ was 8.9 times higher than the normal average amount. In some areas of Cumbre Vieja, these emissions can represent a danger to people if the values are high and there is no good ventilation. It has even been advised to inhabitants of the evaquated areas to be very aware of the gases, to use FFP2 masks and to not remain alone in any moment. SO₂ concentration levels have been good in all stations for the fourth day in a row, with regular levels in Tazacorte and reasonably good in San Antonio. As for microparticles, in the station of Los Llanos, the values are reasonably good, and good in the rest of stations. On the other hand, tremor is at background noise level, and seismicity remains the same at all depts as on past days. December 19—20 On December 19 at 10:00 pm, an unexpected elevation of 8 centimetres has been detected in the nearest station to the eruptive centres—LP03, at the Roques de Jedey. Deformations indicate a reactivation of the volcano, and up until now, these deformations have tended to be accompanied by a paroxysm 24 or 48 hours later. However, it is the only worrysome parametre that has been detected. For the moment, there are no other alarming signs; there is still no volcanic tremor and seismic activity remains low. On December 20, the elevation is reverting, and decreasing to an elevation of 6 centimetres. Episodes with residual deformation and seismicity such as this can continue happening for months and even years, as occurred with the eruption of Tagoro of 2011 in El Hierro. December 25 The eruption is today declared dormant on December 13 at 22:22 UTC, when the tremor suddenly decreased, and the lava emission, seismicity and sulfur dioxide levels dropped to very low levels. But the end of the eruption does not entail the end of the emergency, nor that of the danger. Now, a post-eruptive phase is initiated, in which the risks to the population persists, mainly due to the presence of lethal gases. The origin of these gases is still being studied. The situation requires constant surveillance, and the decrease needs to be complete in order for people to return to their homes. It is likely for remnant seismicity to occur in the coming months. It is also possible for a similar case to that of El Hierro's eruption of Tagoro to develop, with several magmatic reactivations in the following two years which, nonetheless, did not conclude in a new eruption. Such a phenomenon also took place in the eruption of Arafo in Tenerife, between 1704 and 1705, which was followed in 1706 by another eruption on the other side of the island and buried part of the town of Garachico. On the other hand, the last remaining worrisome parametre—the 8 centimetre ground elevation that was registered near the main cone on December 19—has reverted today. Volcanic tremor and seismic noise are also close to pre-eruptive levels. January 3 The terrain still has very high temperatures. The outermost layer of lava cools down, and isolates the interior keeping it from cooling rapidly. This isolation also accumulates the gases in the lava by not allowing them to escape. Degassing can occur at any moment, and it can pose an important threat. The toxicity of the emanating gases is dangerous, they can cause damage in minutes, from the most visible such as irritation from skin and eyes, to serious internal problems that cannot immediately be detected. There are also incandescent points over 100 °C, and time is needed for them to cool. Some are more than 50 metres below surface and have openings of 10 metres. #tajogaite #cabezadevaca #montañarajada #cumbrevieja #lapalma #eruption #volcano

La Palma's Cumbre Vieja volcano eruption of 1585

In the pine tree and laurel forests of the Canary Islands lives the animal that holds the title of largest terrestrial arthropod of the archipelago, Scolopendra valida. It is also present in Northern Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Indomalayan Region. It attains 15 cm (6 in). It is reddish brown in color with a green hue, and has 21 to 23 pairs of yellow legs. It possesses orange legs that correspond to the last pairs of legs, which is enlarged and used as reargard, and the first pair, modified into pincer-like appendages that inoculate venom to subdue their prey, called forcipules. The unusual sense organs of Tömösváry are located the base of the antennae. Their function is still unknown but might be used for picking up chemical scent trails (olfaction) or sensing vibrations (hearing). Its simple eyes (stemmata, pl.) are incompletely aggregated into compound eyes, and provide it with a primitive eyesight that is only capable of differentiating light from dark. It’s a burrowing animal that prefers humid environments under logs or rocks. They have a notorious voracity. Its legs trap their victims in a deadly grip, and are quite capable of holding live prey with its hind limbs while it effortlessly strikes, catches and eats a second prey item with its front limbs. It usually hunts small invertebrates and even small reptiles. The venom presents different toxins that affect specific parts of the body, like muscular control, heart rate or respiration. For humans, the bite is painful but harmless. Only in serious cases it can produce light tissue damage. The fossil record of the group that includes centipedes (Chilopoda) extends back to the Late Silurian, 430 million years ago. Being among the earliest terrestrial animals, centipedes were one of the first ground level predators, and still today, they are one of the most dominant predators of the arthropod world. #centipede #CanaryIslands